Lecture Notes

ANATOMY & PHYSIOLOGY - 31201 & 31202

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Blood and Hemostasis (pp. 650-680)
Know the major functions of blood.
Study the components of blood and their functions (Know Table 18.2).
Study all about erythrocytes and erythropoiesis.
Know the types and causes of anemia and examples of each.
Understand the mechanisms involved in hemostasis (Fig. 18.13a).
Know how clotting is initiated and completed (final steps).
Know about clot retraction, fibrinolysis and anticlotting substances.

Heart Anatomy (pp. 681-696)
Know the anatomy of the heart (pericardium, wall, chambers, valves, great vessels, and innervation)
Know the structure and functional features of cardiac muscle and how these compare with the other
muscle types (Review Table 9.4, pp. 310-311).
Know about circuits and circuit pumps.

Heart Physiology (pp. 696-704)
Know the ionic basis of autorhythmicity/automaticity.
Know the sequence of electrical excitation in the heart (the cardiac conduction system).
Know the general form of the action potential in myocardial cells and its ionic basis.
Be able to relate the ECG to the spread of excitation through the heart and the myocardial action
potential.
Know the mechanical events (phases) of the cardiac cycle, about pressure changes in the heart, 
and changes in ventricular volume and the opening and closing of valves during the cycle (Know 
Fig. 19.19).
Be able to relate the mechanical events of the cardiac cycle to the ECG (Fig. 19.19).
Know about heart sounds.

Cardiac Output (pp. 704-716)
Know the definition of cardiac output.
Know about cardiac reserve.
Understand control of stroke volume and heart rate (Fig. 19.23).
Review features/functions of the autonomic nervous system (Review Fig. 14.2, p. 514).

Blood Vessels (pp. 717-727)
Know the major types of blood vessels.
Know the three tunics of blood vessels.
Be able to compare and contrast the structure and function of the three types of arteries.
Describe the structure and function of veins and explain how the histology of veins differs from
that of arteries.
Know the types of capillaries.
Understand the structure of capillary beds and the regulation of capillary blood flow.

Physiology of Circulation (pp.727-742)
Understand the relationship between blood flow, blood pressure and resistance.
Know the factors that determine resistance to blood flow.
Understand autoregulation and extrinsic control of arteriolar radius (handout).
Know how blood volume influences blood pressure.
Understand in detail the baroreceptor reflex for regulation of blood pressure ( Fig. 19.15, 
and Fig. 20.8).
Capillary Exchange (pp. 742-747)
Know the routes and mechanisms of exchange in capillaries.
Understand the forces involved in capillary fluid exchange and how they interact to move fluids
into and out of the capillary.
Know about the Starling Equilibrium and what happens when it is disturbed.

Lymphatic System (pp. 777-791)
Know the functions of the lymphatic system.
Know the general structural components of the lymphatic system.
Understand the source of lymph and the mechanisms for moving lymph through the lymphatic
system.
Know about lymphoid cells, tissues and know the major lymphoid organs.

Immune System (793-833)
Know the innate defenses, surface: skin & mucosa, internal: cells & chemicals.
Know the adaptive defenses: antigens, role of B & T lymphocytes & macrophages.
Understand the humoral immune and cell mediated responses.
Know the major homeostatic imbalances of Immunity.

Endocrine System (pp. 586-622)
Know the major endocrine organs (Fig. 17.1), the hormones they secrete, their target organs and the general function of each (use your lab manual as a guide). 
Know the definition of a hormone.
Know what factors determine target cell specificity and activation.
Know the chemistry of hormones.
Know the specific effects of hormones on target cells.
Understand the two mechanisms of hormone action.
Know about the control of hormone release.
Be able to identify a 1st, 2nd, or 3rd order (axis) hormonal control system.
Know the types of feedback in endocrine control systems.
How are hormones inactivated?
Know about half-life of hormones.
Know the common features of the endocrine and nervous systems and how they are interrelated.

Respiratory System (pp. 834-886)
Know the processes involved in respiration.
Know about the upper and lower respiratory tracts.
Know the major branches of and how the histology changes in the bronchial tree.
Know about the pleural membranes, the pleural cavity and pleural fluid.
Know about the bronchial circulation and innervation of the lungs.
Know about the respiratory membrane and know the cell types in the alveoli.
Know about the conducting, respiratory and silent zones of the lungs.
Know the skeletal muscles involved in quiet breathing.
Understand why the intrapleural pressure is subatmospheric.
Know Boyle's Law and why it is important in pulmonary ventilation.
Be able to describe the sequence of events that occur during inspiration and expiration.
Know the factors influencing pulmonary ventilation.
What factor most influences airway resistance?
Know the factors that control airway resistance.
What is alveolar surface tension?
What is surfactant, where is it produced and what are its functions?
Know what compliance is and how changes in lung and chest wall compliance alter pulmonary
ventilation.
How is alveolar ventilation rate calculated?
 Know the gas laws (Dalton's Law and Henry's Law) and Fick's First Law of diffusion.
Understand partial pressures and how they are calculated.
Understand the factors affecting diffusion of gases across the respiratory membrane.
Know why the partial pressures of gases in the alveoli are not equal to the partial pressures of the same gases in the atmosphere.
Know the factors affecting external respiration (pulmonary gas exchange) and how each affects
external respiration.
Know the partial pressure relationships (shown in Fig. 23.16) that promote gas exchange.
Know about anatomic and physiologic blood shunt and anatomic and physiologic dead space.
Know how oxygen and carbon dioxide are transported in the blood.
Understand the relationship between hemoglobin saturation and the partial pressure of oxygen.
Know the factors that affect the oxygen equilibrium curve and how these alter loading and
unloading of oxygen and the significance of these shifts.
Know about P50.
Know about the difference between the partial pressure of oxygen and oxygen content of the
blood.
Understand the relationship between oxygen and carbon dioxide transport (Fig. 23.21a and
23.21b).
What is the Haldane effect?
Know about the basic rhythm of breathing.
How do other brain centers, stretch receptors, and chemical factors alter respiratory rhythm?
Recognize the most common homeostatic imbalances of the respiratory system.

Digestive System (pp. 887-947) and Smooth Muscle Physiology (pp. 306-312)
 Know the two anatomical subdivisions of the digestive system.
 Know the processes involved in alimentary canal activities.
 Know the four tunics in the wall of the digestive tract (Fig. 24.6).
 Know the main functions of the gastrointestinal organs (Table 24.1)
 Know the two types of smooth muscle.
 Know the structural and functional characteristics of single-unit 
    smooth muscle and how they differ from those of other muscle types 
    (Table 9.4).
 Know the purposes of movements in the digestive tract?
 Know the two general types of movements in the digestive tract.
 Know the general features of peristalsis and segmentation.
 Know the types of motility that occur in each section of the digestive 
     tract .
 Know the difference between short and long reflexes in the digestive 
    tract (Fig. 24.4).
 Understand how gastric emptying is controlled.
 What is receptive relaxation? How is it controlled? Know about adaptive 
    relaxation and plasticity.
 Understand the role of the enterogastric reflex in gastric emptying (Fig. 24.19).
 Understand how the intrinsic and parasympathetic defecation reflexes work.
 Know the composition of the major secretions of the digestive tract 
    (saliva, gastric juice, pancreatic juice, and bile) and understand how 
     salivation and gastric juice secretion are controlled (Fig. 24.16).
 Understand how the enterogastric reflex inhibits gastric juice secretion.
 Understand the major steps in the chemical digestion of carbohydrates, proteins 
     and lipids and the general types of enzymes involved (Fig. 24.33 a,b,c).
 Know how the end-products of chemical digestion are absorbed and 
     whether or not they enter the blood or lymphatic system.
 Know how lipids are chemically digested and how they get into the 
     lymphatic system (Fig. 24.36).

Nutrition, Metabolism and Body Temperature Regulation (pp. 948-1002)
 Know the different classifications of nutrients.
 Know the sources of macronutrients (Table 25.1).
 Know the importance and uses of macronutrients.
 Know about essential nutrients (vitamines & minerals).
 Know the two metabolic states and characteristics of both.
 Know what the Basal metabolic rate is (BMR).
 Know the mechanisms of heat exchange.
 Understand the reflex arc for control of body temperature.

Urinary System (pp. 71-77, 1003-1039)
Know the general anatomy and functions of the kidney.
Know about nephron structure.
What is the filtration membrane?
What is the juxtaglomerular apparatus?
Know about the blood supply to the nephron.
Know the processes involved in urine formation.
Know the pressures involved in capillary exchange.
How does glomerular capillary exchange differ from exchange in other systemic capillaries?
Know about GFR and the mechanisms regulating GFR (know Fig. 26.10).
Know about tubular reabsorption and secretion (know Table 26.1).
What determines the transport maximum?
Understand the mechanisms for concentrating the urine.
Understand micturition.
Know about body fluid compartments and volumes (know Fig. 27.1).
Know avenues of water gain and loss and how these are regulated (know Fig. 27.5).
How is sodium concentration in the ECF regulated?

Acid-Base Balance (pp. 1055-1069)
 What is pH?
 Know the normal range of pH in the arterial blood (ECF).
 Know the three mechanisms that defend against a change in body fluid 
    pH and the order in which they act.
 In general, how do chemical buffer systems work?
 Know the major buffer systems and the compartment each is most effective.
 Know the carbonic acid reaction.
 Understand how changes in alveolar ventilation can protect against 
    changes in body fluid pH.
 Know the general mechanisms for reabsorption of filtered bicarbonate and
   hydrogen ion excretion in the kidney (Fig. 27.12).
 Which buffer systems are important in protecting against pH changes 
   in the urine?
 Know the four simple acid-base disorders, their characteristics, what 
    they result from and how they are compensated (Table 27.2).
 

Male Reproductive Physiology (pp. 1070-1086)
 Know the structure of the testis.
 Know the processes involved in spermatogenesis (spermatocytogenesis, 
    meiosis, and spermiogenesis).
 Know the number of divisions and daughter cells produced and importance of
    meiosis.
 How do mitosis and meiosis differ?
 Understand what is involved in spermiogenesis.
 Know the roles of the sustentacular cells.
 What is the blood-testis barrier?
 Understand the pituitary-testicular axis.
 Know about sperm capacitation and activation.
 Know the phases of the male sexual act and how they are controlled.

Female Reproductive Physiology (pp. 1086-1117)
 Know the structure of the ovary.
 Understand oogenesis.
 What is the ovarian cycle?
 Know the phases of the ovarian cycle and the hormonal regulation of these 
    phases .
 Understand the menstrual cycle, its phases, and its control.

Development (pp. 1118-1128)
Know how and where an egg becomes an embryo. 
 
 
 

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Revised: March 27, 2001.